Linguistics
is defined as the scientific study of language. From different
viewpoints, as a science, linguistics can be divided into several
branches, among others, descriptive linguistics and
historical/comparative linguistics (if it is based its methodology),
synchronic and diachronic linguistics (if is based on its aspect of
time), and phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics (if it
is based on a language as a system), and sociolinguistics and
psycholinguistics (if it is related to or combined with the disciplines
(sociology and psychology respectively).
As
a science, linguistics must fulfil some scientific prerequisites.
First, it must have a subject matter. Language is said to be a subject
matter of Linguistics. As a subject matter, a language must be clearly
and explicitly defined. Before analyzing a language, some linguists define a language in different ways. Take for example, Finocchioro who defines a language as
a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols that permit all people in a given
culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to
communicate or to interact. Thus, the scope of analysis is based on
the clearly and explicitly defined subject matter. This is to say that
every thing beyond the scope such as gestures/bodily movement will be
ignored. So explicitness in defining the subject matter must be conducted in order that we know what must be studied/analyzed and what must be left.
Second,
it must be based on an objective observation and/or investigation. This
to say that the observation and/or investigation on the subject matter
must be conducted objectively. The result of observation and/or
investigation must be described objectively too and it can be verified
by any competent observer or investigator. So objectivity in conducting observation and/or investigation on the subject matter must be fulfilled in any scientific undertaking.
Third,
the result of observation and/or investigation must be systematically
arranged. This must be conducted as an effort to show relationship
within the subject matter. This is also meant to make the readers easy
to read and study. Thus systematicness is also needed by linguistics.
Language
analysis for the sake to develop linguistics is done systematically
within the framework of some general theory of language structure. The
linguist tries to verify the theory by making objective observations of
actual language data and modifies the theory in the light of what he
perceives to be patterns or regularities underlying the data.
Branches of Linguistics
Some branches of linguistics are as follows:
- Phonetics
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Generative Transformational Grammar
- Semantics
- Pragmatics
Branches of linguistics in relation to the other fields of study:
- Sociolinguistics
- Psycholinguistics
The concepts of the braches of linguistics are presented as follows:
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, which are known more technically as phones. This
the study highlights, especially, how the speech sounds produced by
using speech organs. It shows mechanisms of how to produce the speech
sounds.
Phonology, on
the other hand, is essentially the description of the systems and
patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is, in effect, based on
theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the
sound patterns of that language. This study regards the speech sounds
as having functions to differentiate meanings.
Morphology
is the study of analyzing the expression system of a language which is
concerned with the identification of morphemes and the ways in which
they are distributed or combined into longer utterances or morphological
constructions.
Syntax
is defined as the study on arrangements of words into phrases, clauses,
and sentences or syntactical constructions. The smallest units of
syntax are words.When two or more words are arranged in a certain way,
the result refers to syntactical construction. In other other words, it
can be said that a syntactical construction is a construction in which
its immediate constituents (IC-a) are words (or free morphemes).
A
grammar includes phrase-structure rules, lexical-insertion rules, and
transformational rules. The grammar can be thought of as a machine which
generates all the possible sentences of the language. A grammar
containing such rules is called a generative grammar. When the rules include transformational rules, we have a transformational-generative grammar
A major factor in sentence interpretation involves a body of knowledge that is often called pragmatics. This
includes the speaker’s and addressee’s background attitudes and
beliefs, their understanding of the context in which a sentence is
uttered, and their knowledge of the way in which language is used to
communicate information
A term sociolinguistics
is a derivational word. Two words that form it are sociology and
linguistics. Sociology refers to a science of society; and linguistics
refers to a science of language. A study of language from the
perspective of society may be thought as linguistics plus sociology.
Some investigators have found it to introduce a distinction between
sociolinguistics and sociology of language. Some others regard
sociolinguistics is often referred as the sociology of language.
The
study that is concerned with the relationship between language and the
context in which it is used. In other words, it studies the relationship
between language and society. It explains we people speak differently
in different social contexts. It discusses the social functions of
language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning. All of the
topics provides a lot of information about the language works, as well
as about the social relationships in a community, and the way people
signal aspects of their social identity through their language (Jenet
Holmes, 2001). Sociolinguitics also refers to the study that is
concerned with the interaction of language and setting (Carol M.
Eastman, 1975; 113). The other expert defines it as the study that is
concerned with investigating the relationship between language and
society with the goal of a better understanding of the structure of
language and of how languages function in communication ( Ronald
Wardhaugh, 1986 : 12)
A term ‘psycholinguistics’
is a combination of psychology and linguistics. Both are the branches
of sciences. Psychology is defined as the systematic study of human
experience and behavior or as the science that studies the behavior of
men and other animals Knight and Hilgert in Abu Ahmadi, 1992). There are
several branches of psychology, among others, social psychology,
psychology of communication, developmental psychology, educational
psychology, and psychology of language. The last branches of psychology
is often called as psycholinguistics. It is defined as a field of study
that combines psychology and linguistics. It covers language
development. (Lim Kiat Boey). The other definition of psycholinguistics
is that it is the study of human language –language comprehension,
language production, and language acquisition (E.M. Hatch)
English Language Teaching
English teaching
in Indonesia has has gone on in very long time. English has been taught
in Indonesia since the proclamation of Indonesia as a first foreign
language. It has been taught at the first year junior high schools up to
the third year senior high schools, and at the university
for several semesters. Even, nowadays, English is taught at the
elementary schools as the local content subject.
All of us, may
have known that the various efforts for improving approaches, methods
and techniques have been done. The English Teaching Curriculum has been
changed or improved from time to time. The various supporting books and
textbooks have been written by many writers and those are published by
the various publishers. Now, we can ask ourselves: ”How is the result of
English teaching in our schools?”, or ”Does it make us our school
students have good competence and performance in using the language?”
Our empirical experience shows that many students fail in their English
learning and that they regard the language as the difficult subject to
learn.
Starting from
the assumption, the students are not motivated in learning English
untill they have a good mastery of the language. They tend to be
aphatetic in attending the English subject. As a consequence, their
learning achievement is not satisfactory.
Who is wrong in our English teaching, our students, our teachers or others?. Of course, we will not find ”who are wrong and what is wrong”
in the failure of our English teaching. Because, in fact, when we want
to evaluate an educational undertaking, many factors or variables have
to be considered. In English teaching, there are teacher, learner, and
socio-cultural factors.
Linguistics in Language Teaching
Linguistics
is important for language teaching because linguistics and language
teaching can be likened to the relationship of knowledge about engine
and the skill in driving a car. It will be better for the driver to
supported with some knowledge about the car or the engine so that he can
drive it well and know how to overcome some engine trouble in case he
has to face it. In the same way it will be better if a language teacher
has some knowledge about, for instance, the characteristics of language
in general and the specific language he is teaching in particular. In
this relation, he should know how language works and express meaning,
and what structures are used in the particular language he is teaching.
He should get familiar, for instance, with the theory about the general
mechanism of producing speech sounds, so that he will be able to tackle
any pronunciation problem his students may encounter.
By
studying linguistics he will have deeper insights into the nature of
language, and act accordingly in teaching the language. For instance,
when he agrees that the use of language is a matter of habits and
practice, in teaching it to his students he must implant the habit of
using it for communication until it becomes deeply established.